Inheritance & Polymorphism

1. What Is It?

Inheritance lets one class reuse and extend another. You declare class Dog extends Animal (Java) or class Dog(Animal) (Python), and Dog automatically gets Animal's fields and methods — plus whatever Dog adds or overrides. The goal is reuse without copy-paste, and a shared vocabulary for related types.

Polymorphism is the payoff: code written against the parent type works unchanged when you pass a child type. A function that takes Animal can receive any Dog, Cat, or Sparrow, and calling animal.speak() runs the right version for each. Without polymorphism, every new type forces you to open up and edit every function that handles it — the classic cascade of if isinstance(...) or switch(type) blocks.

2. How It Works

Inheritance: the "is-a" link

When Dog inherits from Animal, a Dog object has everything an Animal has. The parent's fields and methods are present in the child, and the child can:

• Add new fields and methods
• Override a parent method to change its behavior
• Call the parent's version via super() / super.method() / Parent::method()

# Python
class Animal:
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name
    def speak(self):
        return "..."

class Dog(Animal):
    def speak(self):                      # override
        return f"{self.name} says woof"

class Puppy(Dog):
    def speak(self):
        return super().speak() + " (small)"  # reuse parent

print(Puppy("Rex").speak())               # Rex says woof (small)

Polymorphism: one call, many behaviors

# Python — duck typing; no declaration needed
def describe(animal):
    print(animal.speak())

describe(Dog("Rex"))     # Rex says woof
describe(Puppy("Max"))   # Max says woof (small)

The vtable — how dynamic dispatch works

When a method is polymorphic, the compiler can't decide at compile time which function to call — it depends on the object's actual type at runtime. C++ and Java implement this with a vtable (virtual method table). Each class has a table of function pointers, and each object carries a hidden pointer to its class's table. A call like a.speak() becomes "look up speak in a's vtable, call that."

• Java: every method is dispatched through this mechanism by default. Python gets the same effect by looking the name up along the class's MRO at call time.
• C++: only methods marked virtual are. Non-virtual calls are resolved at compile time and are faster — but won't do polymorphism.

3. What You Actually Need to Know

• Overriding vs. overloading are different. Overriding replaces a parent's method in a child class (runtime dispatch). Overloading means multiple methods with the same name but different parameters in the same class (compile-time; Python effectively doesn't have it).
• Use @Override (Java) or override (C++11+). These make the compiler check you actually overrode something — catches typos like equals(Object) vs. equal(Object) that silently create a new method.
• C++: mark destructors virtual in any class you might inherit from. Otherwise delete parent_ptr on a child object is undefined behavior — typically the child's destructor never runs and its resources leak.
• C++: beware object slicing. Assigning a Dog to an Animal variable (by value) copies only the Animal part. Use pointers or references for polymorphism.
• Calling parent methods — super().method() (Python), super.method() (Java), Parent::method() (C++). Common in __init__ / constructors so the parent initializes its own fields.
• Debugging clues:
  • "The parent's method ran when I expected the child's" — in C++, the method isn't virtual, or you're calling by value (slicing). In Java, you declared it static or final. In Python, check your class hierarchy / MRO.
  • NoSuchMethodError after refactoring (Java) — a caller was compiled against an older class version; the method signature changed.
  • Infinite recursion in __init__ (Python) — you typed self.__init__(...) instead of super().__init__(...).

Abstract classes and interfaces

Sometimes the parent is never meant to be instantiated — it just defines a contract. That's an abstract class, and a method with no body is an abstract method.

# Python
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
class Shape(ABC):
    @abstractmethod
    def area(self): ...
# Shape()  → TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class

4. Language Differences

Python's MRO (Method Resolution Order) is worth a glance: D.__mro__ shows exactly which class will be checked for a method, in order. For simple hierarchies it's obvious; for diamond inheritance it's the rule. Python computes MRO using an algorithm called C3 linearization — you rarely need the details, just know that __mro__ is the source of truth when you're unsure which method will win.

C++'s diamond problem — D inherits from both B and C, both of which inherit from A — is solved with virtual inheritance (class B : virtual public A), which ensures one shared A sub-object rather than two.

5. Tradeoffs & Decisions

• Inheritance vs. composition. Inheritance couples child to parent forever — changes to the parent ripple into every descendant. Composition (holding another object as a field and delegating to it) is looser and easier to change. Default to composition; reach for inheritance when the relationship is genuinely "is-a" and you need polymorphism.
• Deep hierarchies hurt. More than two or three levels of inheritance tends to be a warning sign. Each level adds indirection and hidden behavior. Flatten with composition.
• Abstract class vs. interface (Java / C++). An interface declares a contract with no state. An abstract class can declare a contract and provide shared implementation. Choose interface when you just need the shape; abstract class when subclasses share real code.
• virtual in C++ is a commitment. Adding virtual later to a class you already released changes the object's memory layout (the vtable pointer), which forces every user of the class to recompile — an "ABI break" (Application Binary Interface — the layout and calling conventions that compiled code depends on). Decide up front: is this class meant to be a polymorphic base?
• Template Method vs. Strategy. Both enable "variation in one step of a fixed algorithm." Template Method uses inheritance (override the step). Strategy uses composition (inject an object with that step). Strategy is usually more flexible.

If you find yourself about to override a concrete parent method to subtly change its behavior, pause: you're probably making the parent's invariants harder to reason about. Consider holding the object instead (composition) or promoting the varying step to a strategy.

6. Interview Cheat Sheet

• Inheritance lets a class reuse and extend another; polymorphism lets code written against the parent type work with any child type.
• Dynamic dispatch — the actual method called is chosen at runtime based on the object's real class. It uses a vtable (C++/Java) or an MRO lookup (Python).
• Python and Java dispatch all instance methods dynamically by default. C++ requires virtual; non-virtual calls are resolved at compile time.
• Override vs. overload — override = same signature, different class (runtime); overload = same name, different parameters, same class (compile-time).
• Prefer composition over inheritance unless you have a genuine "is-a" relationship and need polymorphism.

Follow-ups:

• "What's a vtable?" — A per-class table of function pointers. Each polymorphic object holds a hidden pointer to its class's vtable; calling a virtual method is an indirect call through that table.
• "Why does C++ have virtual but Java doesn't?" — Java assumes dynamic dispatch everywhere (pay the cost by default); C++ lets you opt in, so non-virtual calls are as fast as regular function calls.
• "What's object slicing?" — C++-specific: assigning a derived object to a base-type variable by value copies only the base part. Use pointers or references for polymorphism.
• "When would you use composition over inheritance?" — Almost always. Pick inheritance only when you truly have an "is-a" relationship and need the substitutability for polymorphism.